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Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment from the macro level of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the micro level of construction details and, sometimes, furniture.

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He advocated the concept of mobile hotels and houseboats which promoted the freedom of movement aforementioned — the freedom to stay or the freedom to go. The design, intended to be built in Chicago, would have included stories, with a gross area of Had it been built, it would be the tallest building in the world.

This is arguably the most famous of the semi-serious visionary buildings meant to be an alternative to the increasing urban sprawl occurring in most cities.

None of these have ever been viewed as financially feasible. The design of the Burj Khalifa tower is said to have been inspired by that of The Illinois. In keeping with his belief that architecture ought to be organic, Wright likened this system to a tree trunk with branches.

He planned to use gold-tinted metal on the facade to highlight angular surfaces along balconies and parapets and specified Plexiglas for window glazing.

Technical feasibility Wright believed that it would have been technically possible to construct such a building even at the time it was proposed. At the time, the tallest skyscraper in the world was New York's Empire State Building, at less than a quarter the height suggested for the Illinois. It probably would have been possible to erect a self-supporting steel structure of the required height, but there are a number of problems which occur when a building is that tall.

The material used for towers at the time, steel, is quite flexible. This causes the tower to sway substantially in the wind, causing discomfort for occupants of the higher floors. Though Wright acknowledged this problem in his original proposal, he claimed the tripod design of this tower similar to that of the CN Tower, which was not designed until a decade after Wright's death combined with its tensioned steel frame and the integral character of its structural components would counteract any oscillation.

It is also possible this could have been solved by placing a counterweight somewhere within the tower as was done in the Citigroup Center. Also, the late s and early s have seen substantial increases in the load-bearing strength of concrete, making it a possibility to build entirely in this less flexible material. The space needed to service the elevators needed to reach the higher levels would occupy all of the space available on the upper floors, thus defeating the purpose of the building's height.

This was complicated by Wright's slender design. This problem has also been addressed in smaller buildings, such as in the Taipei , by using double-deck elevators.

In the World Trade Center, the building was divided into three sectors, each with its own sky-lobby, where occupants changed between large express elevators and smaller local elevators. However, even with both of these measures implemented, the problem would still exist. Wright's solution was five-story elevators, running on ratchet interfaces located on the outside of the building presumably on the unseen side in his painting to conserve building space.

Another concern is fire safety. The need for emergency stairwells would bind much of the available space in the upper floors in a similar fashion. This could be overcome by designing elevators to remain operational during a fire. Chapter 1 P a g e 29 Albeit at a smaller scale, the same problem as with the elevators is encountered with water and sewage.

A possible solution would be to recycle the water used in the upper floors; this is easier today than it would have been in the s. High cost of real-estate is the main problem of Kolkata and all other cities in the country. The problem is man-made.

As many cities round the world have demonstrated, a cure is not impossible. It is strange but true: World over, land prices are low wherever habitat quality is high; land prices skyrocket only when the environment becomes bad! This phenomenon is the result of overcrowding that feeds on itself to overcrowd even more. Urban congestion may be tackled in three ways: The most popular one is to go vertical. That generally makes matters worse because it increases congestion, escalates land prices and hurts the poor more and more.

This option is for shortsighted megalomaniacs. Expanding horizontally is another option. That increases commuting distances, worsens the congestion at the centre, and is no better than vertical expansion from the social point of view: children and parents get separated for long hours.

This option is for lazy administrators who prefer to let matters drift. The third and so far the least successful solution is the satellite town. Kalyani near Kolkata and Maraimalainagar near Chennai are standing examples of their limited appeal. Yet, in the final analysis, the satellite town is the best option. It leads to lowest land prices, and hence offers the poor the best chance for proper housing.

In every way — financial, ecological, ethical, and social — satellite towns are the best cure for Kolkata and other cities but it is difficult to get them going. For instance, people prefer to live in Delhi and to commute everyday to work in the neighbouring industrial town of Faridabad.

This practice sharply contrasts with the US experience where the fashion is to work in the city but live in far away rural counties. In India, the old city is the dormitory, the satellite town the work place. In the US, it is the other way round. That happens because American satellite towns offer high quality services of the type that may be described as tele- Notes on Town planning and Human settlements Compiled by CT.

Chapter 1 P a g e 31 ineffective — the kind of services that have to be close to the home and are of no use if they are far away. Indian satellite towns are poorly designed in this respect. Tele-ineffective services are mainly three — schools, general hospitals and retail stores. People do not expect colleges to be nearby, but kindergarten and elementary schools have to be close at hand. They would be willing to go even a thousand miles for open-heart surgery, but maternity hospitals must be accessible at short notice.

The same is true for retail shopping too. In all three cases, satellite towns of the US offer first-rate facilities. In India, the situation is quite the opposite. It is the city that offers the best schools, medical facilities and shopping, not satellite towns.

Maraimalainagar lay dormant for decades because it offered no schools or hospitals of repute. Kalyani started with a university but no schools worthy of note. That is why Kalyani too did not succeed. Basically, satellite towns will take off when two conditions are satisfied: One, when they offer superior quality schools, hospitals and departmental stores.

Two, the cost of commuting to the city is low — to access tele- effective services such as universities and airports that only the parent city can offer. These are not onerous conditions but require ingenuity and a new paradigm in habitat management. Therefore, this option is only for the competent and for those with the courage to experiment with new ideas. By world standards, prestigious satellite towns such as Salt Lake City, near Kolkata, and Gurgaon, near Delhi, are over-crowded.

So, they do not relieve the parent city as well as they should. Suppose we limit the population density of our satellite towns to that of New York.

As New York is one of the most crowded cities of the West that is a modest target indeed. In that case, our satellite town should offer, on an average, a minimum of square metre of residential space per dwelling plus another square metres for non-residential uses.

That is ten times more than what Kolkata offers. With square metres as the average, even the poor can hope to have square metres — enough to live with dignity. Our satellite towns should offer that much space as the barest minimum for civilised urban development. They do not. They do not do so because of a false notion that cities must be congested. In truth, allocation of urban space on the lines of New York will need only one per cent of the country's land area to accommodate the entire urban population of India.

So, the problem is not physical but political and cultural. Overcoming the inhibition against allocating adequate space, and designing habitats with a minimum average of square metres of residential space, plus an equal area per dwelling for non- residential use, is Step One in the development and promotion of satellite towns.

Only then, will satellite towns be better than cities like Kolkata. The space should be evenly distributed. New York has hotspots of high congestion As a thumb rule, in every locality, minimum allocation per dwelling should be: 80 square metres of roads, 20 square metres of commercial space, another 20 square metres of parking space in commercial centres, 40 square metres of gardens and parks, 10 square metres for schools and hospitals with another 40 square metres for industries, etc.

Uniform distribution of space on these lines is Step Two in satellite town development. If land allocation is ten times that in Kolkata, to limit costs, land price should be at least ten times less that in Kolkata. That will be possible if the satellite town is located far enough from the city, preferably on marginal land.

Choosing such a location is Step Three. These three steps require high administrative competence to implement. The urban problem is not merely administrative; it is cultural and political too. As a political ploy, State governments in India offer a tax holiday to attract entrepreneurs.

That is of limited use. To make satellite towns truly attractive, there must be a holiday for over-restrictive labour laws, the Rent Control Act and Notes on Town planning and Human settlements Compiled by CT. Chapter 1 P a g e 32 extortionate stamp duty too.

That requires political courage. Fortunately, not much of that may be needed if these holidays are restricted to satellite towns. These holidays are Step Four. State governments can help much more. They should take active steps to promote high quality schools, hospitals, and shopping malls in satellite towns. For instance, they may minimise entry costs for investors by leasing land rather than selling it outright.

In a matching fashion, the government may acquire land from farmers for the satellite town not by outright purchase but on an annual lease. I have found that farmers are happy to accept an annual fee equal to twice the prevailing price of what they grow at present. It would be an added bonus if they are offered also, say, ten square metres of shopping space in the new town for each acre of farmland they surrender.

That way they will have guaranteed, inflation protected income some three-four times their present net earnings. Leasing of land from farmers for a fee that is indexed to grain prices instead of buying their land outright and sub-leasing the same to investors is Step Five.

All these are pull factors. To complete the mechanism, we need some push factors too. I suggest two: One, let it be made the statutory duty of every employer to offer a minimum square metres of living space to every employee half the average dwelling space proposed above. Those employers who fail to do so may be asked to make a refundable deposit equal to the cost of that much space in the vicinity of their business.

As a concession to small firms, only those with large number of employees may be so charged. Typically, that will be Rs lakh per employee — sufficient to move employers away unless they have no alternative. When they do move, they get back their deposit, and meanwhile the State government enjoys the credit. Instituting a compelling force of this nature is Step Six.

As a second push-force, employers in the city may be asked to reimburse in full the commuting costs of their employees from their homes to the work place.

That will make commuting from satellite towns as affordable as it is in the US. To make investment in satellite towns attractive, they may be given a holiday from this impost too. Enforcing such a selective impost is Step Seven. This composite process for reversing rural-urban migration by making satellite towns attractive is my solution for cities like Kolkata.

Such development generated great concern in the UK during the s and 30s, as well as in numerous other countries. Increasing motor car ownership meant that houses would be sellable even though they might be remote from shops and other services. It was attractive to developers because they did not have to waste money or plot space constructing roads. The practice became seen as antithetical to efficient use of resources and as a precursor to urban sprawl, meaning that a key aim for the United Kingdom's post-War planning system was to halt ribbon development.

It led to the introduction of green belt policies. Following the Industrial revolution, ribbon development became prevalent along railway lines - predominantly in the UK, Russia, and United States. A good example of this was the deliberate promotion of Metro land along London's Metropolitan railway.

Such expansion of human settlement is now seen as positively helpful in the fight against environmental destruction caused by building along roads. It can also occur along ridge lines, canals and coastlines, the latter especially occurring as people seeking sea change lifestyles build their houses where they can get the best view. The resulting towns and cities are often difficult to service efficiently.

Often the first problems noticed by residents is traffic congestion as people compete to move along the narrow urban corridor while ever more people join the ribbon further along the corridor.

Urban consolidation is often a solution to encourage growth towards a more compact urban form. Ribbon development can also be compared with a linear village which is a village that grew along a transportation route, not as part of a city's expansion. Chapter 1 P a g e 34 Ekistics The attempt to arrive at a proper conception and implementation of the facts, concepts and ideas related to human settlements, and the attempt to re-examine all principles and theories and to readjust the disciplines and professions connected with settlements, led to the need for a special discipline of human settlements, the discipline of Ekistics.

Ekistics is the study of human settlement, which examines not only built forms, but also the interface of time, movements and systems in the built environment. It is an integrative body of knowledge organized into a cohesive system. Doxiadis saw ekistics as an intellectual approach to balance the convergence of the past, present, and future in human settlements as well as a system for creatively coping with the growth of population, rapid change and the pressures of large-scale, high-density housing.

If we wait for the proper development of a science of human settlements, we may find ourselves overwhelmed by the rising tide of the problems. We may even lose the battle for such a science since humanity may find no use of systematic theoretical thinking in a period of panic tension.

It seems that they will merge into ever- larger groupings, which will become a continuous universal settlement, the universal city or Ecumenopolis.

Ekistic units The recognition that the wide range of human settlements can contain units as small as a room or as large as major parts of the Earth forces us to look into the problem of dimensions. Since settlements consist of several elements, we can define their dimensions by defining the dimensions of their elements. If we consider the two elements, Man and Society, we can define the size of the settlement by the number of people living in it. Thus, we may have settlements ranging from the one-man settlement, which may be either part of a major settlement or an isolated one for example, a light-house with one operator or a remote railway station with one employee to settlements of tens, hundreds, thousands, millions and, lately, even tens of millions of people.

If we turn to the element of Nature, we can define the size of the settlement by the extent of the space, which is covered, either by the whole settlement, or by the intensely developed part of it, or by its built-up part only.

This distinction may also serve in the case of networks. Finally, if we turn to the element of the shells we can study physical dimensions, which can be expressed either in areas or in volume. So, in the case of all the elements, we have touched upon the space covered by settlements. If we now turn to the activity and the functions of a settlement we can also define it by way of its dimensions.

For example, a settlement can show a small or large degree of economic activity — it can be the center of a certain degree of productive activity, or an administrative center of a certain degree of administrative importance, etc. In this study we are dealing with terrestrial space in connection with human settlements, although we may soon have to deal with extra-terrestrial space as well.

The terrestrial space use by man is three-dimensional space in which height and depth add the third dimension, not as an auxiliary, but as an indispensable component of the space. Chapter 1 P a g e 35 settlements to three, we would be making a great mistake, for their space is not simply three- dimensional.

Since human settlements cannot be said to exist without their functions and without people, they cannot be separated from the fourth dimension, that of time. Deprived of this, they lack the dynamic element of motion and evolution. In the absence of time, we are incapable of understanding the nature of human settlements.

It is easy to explain why this fourth dimension is indispensable to the study of human settlements. Therefore, human settlements consist of and require four dimensions to be properly understood. Any such division will, therefore, have to be somewhat arbitrary, but it must also be an inherently satisfying and reasonable one. Such a division has been worked out on the basis of empirical experience and is presented in a logarithmic scale.

The smallest unit of measurement is Man. He does not form a settlement in himself since he is one of its elements, but he does have a shell his clothing is the smallest possible human shell and personal furniture plays the same role and he is the Basic and indispensable unit of measurement. The second smallest unit is a normal room. From this we go to a dwelling, a group of several dwellings, a small neighbourhood, a neighbourhood, a small town, a town, a city, a metropolis, a conurbation, a megalopolis, an urban region, an urbanized continent, until, finally, we reach the largest conceivable space for a settlement, which is the whole Earth.

One way is on the basis of the areas covered by the different units area ELS , another way is on the basis of the number of people corresponding to each unit population ELS.

This is one of the reasons why although many people understand that settlements consist of five elements, they are eager to speak only about what can be clearly seen - the physical aspects of the settlements. There can be no question of the importance of nature and the shells, nor of the need to handle many phenomena of the human settlements by designing their physical elements. However, this is no reason to confine our interest and attention to the shells.

We must keep I mind that the shells are only the outward manifestation of the other elements of the settlement. This is how we must look at the form, shape and appearance of human settlements. We must recognize the shells as the membrane that covers the real life of the settlement, the life of the people, their society and their functions.

Chapter 1 P a g e 36 understand that we have to deal with phenomena consisting of five elements, although we can see only one of them. Each of these elements can be subdivided once more — a Nature 1.

Geological resources 2. Topographical resources 3. Soil resources 4. Water resources 5. Plant life 6. Animal life 7. Climate b Man 1. Biological needs space, air, temperature, etc. Emotional needs human relations, security, beauty, etc.

Moral values c Society 1. Population composition and density 2. Social stratification 3. Cultural patterns 4. Economic development 5. Education 6. Health and welfare 7. Law and administration d Shells 1. Housing 2. Community services schools, hospitals, etc. Shopping centers and markets 4.

Recreational facilities theatre, museum, stadium, etc. Civic and business centers town hall, law-courts, etc. Industry 7. Transportation centers e Networks 1. Water supply systems 2. Power supply systems 3. Transportation systems water, road, rail, air 4. Communication systems telephone, radio, TV etc. Sewerage and drainage 6. Chapter 1 P a g e 37 Nature and goals of Settlements Human settlements consist of five basic elements, Nature, man, society, shells and networks, which together form a system.

Their goal is to make man happy and safe. If these statements are true, and my whole effort has been based on this assumption, how can we connect them in a reasonable way? If human happiness and safety is our only goal, have the other elements no value at all? Even though it is man who is our ultimate goal, since he needs both nature and society in order to survive, these two elements necessarily constitute secondary concerns; we must care for their preservation and safety.

And since man and society created for themselves the need for shells and networks, these should constitute our tertiary goals; we must care for their development, maintenance and operation. In this way our pentagon of five elements can turn into a pentagon of Ekistic goals where every element corresponds with a goal of a certain order.

Primary Man Secondary Nature Society Network Shells Tertiary Since our primary goal is man himself, we have to face the question of how to translate into practice the fact that even though man is singular, he is plural as well; our concern is for the individual, for the one man, but we have many of these men.

The answer is that man as an individual is our main goal and concern. In practice this means that we must do the maximum we can for the individual. Where he is alone, this effort will not meet with any competition. Where there are many we must once again do the maximum we can for the benefit of every single man.

In this way the primary goal of a settlement is to maximize the services to man whether alone or in a group. The goal of a settlement is to maximize the satisfaction and safety of all its citizens by defining the best that can be conceived, and by coming as close to it as is feasible.

Total 45 References: 1. Hansen N. Andro D. The physical components comprise shelter, i. Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition.

The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the material support. A human being has some invisible spheres around him. These spheres are the spheres of the senses like touch, smell, sight, hearing and also supernatural or spiritual.

The spiritual sphere is directly proportional to his intellect. People interact with one another by direct interaction of these spheres. Human desires and endurances have remained the same throughout the years and manifestations of which have changed by evolution. When his number increased and his food requirements became enormous he came out of the forests to live in the plains, to cultivate and make more food materials.

Availability of water was the main criterion for selecting land for cultivation and habitation. Notes on Human settlements planning Compiled by CT. Chapter 1 This happened according to scientist, about 10, years back and that was the beginning of human settlements, when man made houses to live in and worked for his food.

Thus it was a transition from cave to village. Protection from the vagaries of climate and wild animals was the main purpose of a house, rightly called a shelter. He built houses with whatever materials were available near about him, like mud, wood, reeds boughs, leaves and what not.

For better protection and mutual help he used to live in groups, surrounded by the cultivated lands, which invariably were selected where water was available throughout the seasons.

This gave rise to villages or small human settlements, all of them near perennial fresh water sources like rivers, and lakes. Wherever natural protection was lacking barricades and moats surrounded them. Later, when transportation of men and materials became necessary, seacoasts and riverbanks were selected for settlements.

As we learn from history, early civilization spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, tigres, Euphrates, Indus rivers etc. In all settlements, there were both natural and man-made elements like hills, valleys — buildings, roads etc.

They were scattered throughout, especially along riverbanks and in plains, fed by rivers. Inter — relations and inter-actions between settlements, both near and far off, developed gradually and it gave rise to social, cultural, political, economic and many other institutions Conflict between men and environment started when man began to change the environment for better convenience and better comfort.

This conflict is a continuous process, and is continuing with all its ramifications supported by science and technology. Man being aggressive in nature, did not easily adjust himself to be part of a self-disciplined community.

Personal and group rivalries flared up within settlements. Survival of the fittest was the order of the day. The winner assumed the role of a leader and maintained discipline. When the leader gained more and more power and strength, several settlements came under him. He himself assumed titles of king or emperor. To protect himself and his kingdom, he wanted an army and a safe place to live. For this he established non-agricultural settlements, exclusively for himself, his army and the people around him.

Such settlements were fortified and moats built all around, for additional protection from attacking enemies. People from the villages, whose main occupation was agriculture, began to migrate to such urban centers, to get better employment and better wages.

Further, the developments came out of the forts and moats, to accommodate more people and this gave rise to bigger settlements, what we call towns and cities. Socio-economic and socio-cultural changes, as well as developments in science and technology influenced the life styles of the people and their quality of life. In the process, some settlements, perished, may be by war, floods or drying up of water sources and some other prospered becoming larger and larger, like our present day giant cities which we call metropolis, mega polis etc.

Till the recent past, shelter, especially in small settlements, was not a serious problem as the shelter requirements were quite simple and limited. There was no difficulty in getting a piece of land, either owned or rented. Chapter 1 They constructed their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and using their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and using their own labour. The harmful impact of intensive urbanization, consequent to the industrial revolution, accelerated deterioration of the living environment.

But in spite of all the efforts to improve the living environment in human settlements, the challenge of poverty, congestion and insanitation still remains in cities throughout the world. Man had made unprecedented progress during the current century in the fields of industry, Education, Health, Communication, Transportation etc. The struggle for shelter still continues. A significant reason, for this lag is the population explosion followed by urban explosion.

The process are born, develop, decline and die which can be compared to plant and animal which are everywhere in this universe. Settlements may have an initial structure, which only allows for a certain degree of growth, but nothing excludes the possibility of an expansion and transformation of this structure, which will allow them to surpass the initial structural limitations.

The human settlements have no pre- determined death, though there is death in their activities, there will be born of another where the active exists.

The evolution of human settlements can be divided into five major phases: 1. Primitive non-organised human settlements started with the evolution of man. Primitive organised settlements the period of villages - eopolis - which lasted about 10, years. Static urban settlements or cities polis - which lasted about 5,, years. Dynamic urban settlements dynapolis - which lasted - years.

The universal city ecumenopolis - which is now beginning. Probably began with fire, they went on to animal husbandry and the domestication of grazing animals; afterwards came deforestation and agriculture, and with it, permanent human settlements. Man had settled first in natural shelters such as hollows in the ground, hollow trees or shallow caves, before he began to build his own primitive and unorganised habitat. After first exploiting natural formations and transforming them into dwellings, by various changes and additions, he began to create shells independent of, and unrelated to, pre-existing natural forms and their boundary were within certain limit beyond which the settlement had no link and transportation.

For example observing the level of agriculture communities. The communities take up a smaller area where they are agricultural, and a larger one where they are hunting and cattle-breeding communities. Their nucleus under normal conditions is in the center of gravity; or of security problem, in the safest place in their area, or even beyond their area of cultivation. Chapter 1 There are no transportation and communication lines between the communities.

If we look at these primitive non-organised communities on a macro scale, there consists of a nucleus which is the built up part of the human settlement, and several parts which lead out into the open, thinning out until they disappear — either because nobody goes beyond certain limits of the community or because these trips take place so seldom that they would not be placed on the same scale of densities. There is no physical lines connecting this primitive settlement with others; there are no networks between settlements.

It required time and acquisition of experience in organising the relationship between man and man, man and nature, and finally expressing these relationships through cohesive forms of settlements. Simple two-dimensional force systems and static. Name of the architecture architecture design team and author of the architecture document with. Design Studio is a core subject in architectural course or education at the higher learning institutes in Malaysia and other countries overseas.

This manual is specific to a PowerPoint slide deck related to Module 4 Architectural design and construction. Landscape architecture is concerned with the arrange ment of land water plant forms and structures for their best and greater enjoyment. To accent the titles even more they are underlined. It deals with land-planning prob lems such as building sites gardens outdoor-living areas playgrounds and parks. Along with this qualitative exploration quantitative analysis of marks in the subjects of Basic Design and Architectural Design of a second year student and Architectural Design Building technology and Materials of the same student when in fourth year was made.

CISC based computer will have shorter programs which are made up of symbolic machine language. My design envisioned a glass box that complemented the existing. This Designers Notebook provides a guide for all parties involved in a precast concrete project and defines the responsibilities of each party. Repetitive questions from previous exams are reused 4. Pin On Recursos Graficos.